Intelligence, Culture and Education

Central research question

Under what conditions the capacities cognitives, the knowledge, the practices cultural and the institutions éducatives s’articulent-ils to broaden the autonomy and the pluralism, and under what conditions the arrangements of transmission and of selection reproduisent-ils of inégalités or reduce-ils the diversity of forms of knowledge?

Secondary questions: which dimensions of the intelligence are observées; which forms of knowledge are made legitimate; who has access to the institutions and to their codes; how the curricula are-ils chosen; what effects are attribuables to the teaching, au context familial, to the pairs, to the resources or to the platforms; which people are excluded by the language or the formats; how the institutions justifient-they their decisions; how the disagreements can-ils be examinés without reduce the security or the equality to has conformité intellectuelle?

Definitions and terminology

The definitions suivantes are working definitions. They serve to avoid that a mot loaded not fasse office of conclusion. They not remplacent nor has instrument validé, nor has debate théorique, nor has traduction carefully contrôlée.

Intelligence and diversity cognitive

Parler of intelligence au singulier can be commode in has conversation, but the analyse must distinguish several objets. HAS tâche can solliciter reasoning abstrait, memory of work, vitesse, understanding langagière, attention or knowledge antérieures. The performance depends also of the familiarité with the format, of the language, of the sommeil, of the anxiété, of resources and of enjeux perçus. HAS measure not is therefore not the phénomène entier.

HAS approche multidimensionnelle not means not that any difference of performance is illusoire nor that all trait is équivalent. She means that il must annoncer the builds, the protocol and the scope of the inférence. Compares of groups exige of verify the comparabilité of the measure, the conditions of administration, the effects of selection and the data manquantes. The results not must not be translated in ranking of êtres humains by value innée.

The diversity cognitive can mean of profils of forces, of besoins and of stratégies, but the expression not dispense not of examiner the barrières. HAS institution can valoriser has skill real all in rendant invisibles of other skills by its horaires, its formats or its criteria. The question is alors institutional: which capacities are rendues observable, lesquelles are récompensées and which aménagements allow has participation équitable?

The instruments comparatifs of the OCDE can document of performances in of domains définis, but their cadres and limits must be lus before any interpretation. [S10] [S11]

Knowledge, expertise and judgment

Connaître has does, knowledge exécuter has procedure, have of the experience in has domaine and juger prudemment has situation are of skills différentes. L’expertise is situated: has person compétente in médecine, programmation, history or artisanat not is not automatiquement expert in pédagogie, political public or assessment of has information virale. The robustesse vient of the convergence between formation, experience pertinente, method explicite, examen by the pairs and capacity to recognise the uncertainty.

The judgment suppose often of decide with of data incomplètes. It must make visibles the hypotheses, the scénarios, the costs of erreur and the status of information. HAS decision institutional can be raisonnable without be certaine; has decision sûre of elle-same can be fragile. For the investigation, the objet not is not of diagnostiquer has manque of intelligence, but of compares the procedures and their conséquences.

Education contribue au judgment lorsqu’elle enseigne of concepts, of methods of verification, the délibération and the possibility of réviser has conclusion. She can also échouer if the évaluation récompense the restitution without understanding, if the authority interdit the question or if the resources necessary not are not disponibles. These hypotheses must be testées in of contextes precise, and no déduites of has style of expression. [S17] [S18] [S19]

Culture, transmission and institutions

The culture is here abordée as has set of practices, of significations, of forms artistiques, of langues, of routines, of knowledge and of institutions. She circule by the famille, the pairs, the école, the associations, the media, the bibliothèques, the lieux of culte, the companies and the platforms. She changes when of groups négocient, traduisent, contestent or recomposent their legacies.

The transmission not is never has copie parfaite. She sélectionne this that is conservé, explicité, évalué or made visible. The institutions can ouvrir has access to of works and to of knowledge, but also impose has canon, has language or has mode of ranking. The does that a practice soit majoritaire in has institution not prouve nor its supériorité nor its universalité.

The analysis must therefore document the mediations: that produces, that keeps, that translates, that finance, that enseigne, that is représenté, that can challenge and that supporte the cost of the access. The plurality cultural not consists not to enfermer of people in has origine; she consists to allow of belongings multiples and of interprétations discutables. [S05] [S06] [S33] [S35]

Systems educational and finalités

The systems educational poursuivent several finalités: transmit of knowledge, develop of skills, préparer to the life professionnelle, soutenir the participation civic, allow the épanouissement and reduce some dépendances. These finalités can entrer in tension. HAS political that increases the standardisation can améliorer the comparabilité all in réduisant the autonomy pédagogique; has political that valorise the expression individual can laisser persister of forts gaps of access to the knowledge.

Education formal is organisée by of établissements and of programmes; the education no formal itself déroule in of associations, of formations, of bibliothèques or of lieux of work; the learning informel itself builds in the life quotidienne, the pairs and the media. The investigations must specify of which space they parlent. HAS indicator of degree not measure not directement the quality of has learning informel, and has score scolaire not résume not the participation cultural.

The cadres internationaux are useful for compares of objectifs, of rights and of indicators, but ils not suppriment not the context historical and matériel. The resources of the UNESCO, of the UNICEF, of the Banque mondiale and of the Union European must be mobilised as cadres or data explicitement documentées, in vérifiant their périmètre. [S01] [S05] [S12] [S14] [S15]

Curriculum, canon and selection

HAS curriculum is has choice of content, of progressions, of methods and of évaluations. HAS canon is has set of references rendues centrales, sometimes au détriment of other voix. No curriculum not is totalement neutre: it distribue of the temps, of the visibility and of opportunities of develop some vocabulaires. This observation not establishes not that a programme is illégitime; she invite to make the criteria explicit.

The criticism must rester symétrique. HAS corpus traditionnel can porter of knowledge importantes and be relu of façon criticism; has ajout récent can expand the representation without be automatiquement pertinent for each objectif of learning. It must demander which knowledge are visées, which selection is justified, which voix manquent, how the disagreements are presented and if the élèves disposent of outils for assess the arguments.

The mechanisms of selection — concours, notes, recommandations, présélection, réputation — can mesurer has préparation real all in captant of resources antérieures. HAS analysis sérieuse sépare the effet of the arrangement of the effet of opportunities of learning that the précèdent. She research the criteria implicites, the appeal and the effects différenciés, without déduire has capacity innée of results institutional. [S06] [S07] [S10] [S11]

Littératie, pensée criticism and education to the media

The littératie not itself reduces not to décoder of mots. She inclut the understanding, the inférence, the évaluation of sources, the usage of data and the capacity to produce has message adapté to has context. The pensée criticism not is not the scepticisme automatique: she suppose of formulate has question, of examiner the evidence, of identifier the alternatives and of réviser has conclusion when the data changent.

Education to the media and to the information can enseigner the provenance, the auteur, the date, the gender, the financement, the distinction between observation and interpretation, thus that the limits of has extrait. She must avoid of turn the verification in épreuve of loyauté political. HAS élève can learn to détecter has source faible without be obligé of adopter has conclusion particulière. [S02] [S19]

Teachers, universities and freedom academic

The teachers make of knowledge accessibles, organise of situations of learning and évaluent of work. Their role is neither of transmit has opinion personal as has does, nor of neutraliser any controverse. The freedom pédagogique must be articulée to of obligations of method, of no-discrimination, of protection of élèves and of transparency of criteria.

TO the university, the freedom academic protects the research, the teaching and the discussion against the pressions indues. She not turns not any claim in knowledge established: the quality depends of methods, of the possibility of criticism, of the transparency of data when she is possible and of procedures of correction. The freedom of expression, the freedom academic and the security of people are liées but no identiques; has institution must traiter their tensions by of rules connues and révisables.

The cadres of the Council of Europe and of the CEDH offrent of entry points normative for the culture democratic and the freedom of expression. Ils must be lus in their text and their context legal, without in do has evidence on the quality of has teaching concret. [S06] [S07] [S08] [S09]

Assessment, degrees and mobilité social

HAS assessment turns has learning in information utilisable for decide. She can aider to repérer has besoin, guider has teaching or certifier has skill. She can also rétrécir the learning if the enjeu becomes dominant, favoriser the people familières with the format and make the erreurs coûteuses. The validité depends of the correspondance between the tâche and the inférence sought.

HAS degree is has signal institutional and often has ressource of access; it not is not has measure complète of the knowledge, of the judgment or of the value of has person. The mobilité social depends of institutions, of the market of the work, of discriminations, of the géographie, of networks and of the patrimoine, not only of the motivation or of the effort. The analyses must avoid the narratives individuels that effacent the conditions structurelles.

The indicators comparatifs of the OCDE and the data of the Banque mondiale can aider to document of trajectories and of gaps, to condition of verify the definitions, the couverture and the comparabilité. [S10] [S11] [S15] [S16]

Inégalités, famille and capital cultural

The familles transmettent of the temps, of resources, of attentes, of langues, of practices of reading, of networks and of stratégies. These resources can soutenir the learning without déterminer mécaniquement has trajectory. The capital cultural is relationnel: has disposition valued in has establishment can be ignorée in has other, and the people combinent several répertoires.

HAS association between origine social and réussite is not sufficient to identifier has mechanism. It must examine the conditions of housing, the santé, the transports, the ségrégations territoriales, the practices scolaires, the selection, the attentes and the resources extrascolaires. The models statistics can ajuster some variables, but the ajustement depends of this that has been mesuré and of the théorie causal adoptée.

The formulation ethics consists to describe of contraintes and of possibilités, not to assigner has essence cognitive to has classe, has origine, has language or has territory. The programmes visant the equality must be évalués on the access, the experience, the learning and the effects no intentionnels. [S01] [S05] [S14] [S15]

Education digital and platforms

The digital educational can faciliter the access, the personnalisation, the collaboration and the continuité; it can also accroître the dependence to has platform, the exposure to the data, the distraction, the gaps of équipement and the opacité of recommandations. HAS interface not is not has enseignant, and the presence of has outil not démontre not has learning.

L’enquête must distinguish the access to has content, the usage, the engagement, the understanding, the transfert and the result to long term. She must document that control the data, which métriques déterminent the visibility, which appeal existent and which alternatives remain disponibles. The principles of governance and of ethics of the UNESCO and the cadres European give of repères; the efficacité must be établie by of évaluations adaptées. [S03] [S04] [S13] [S20]

Language, traduction and access

The language agit on the access to the consignes, to the concepts, to the archives, to the démarches and to the reconnaissance social. HAS difficulté linguistique not allows not of inférer has faible capacity of reasoning. HAS traduction can ouvrir has corpus and modifier the nuances; she must be signalée, surtout lorsqu’un term porte has théorie, has right or has category administrative.

HAS political of access must envisager the formats, the under-titres, the reading facile, the aides humaines, the technologies of assistance, the disponibilité hors ligne and the costs. L’égalité of traitement not consists not always to offer exactement the same format; she can exiger of aménagements justifiés and évalués. The revendications on has language or has community must avoid the essentialisation and distinguish practices linguistiques, institutions and individuals. [S01] [S05] [S14]

Knowledge scientifique and trust public

The science public fonctionne by procedures: formulation, measure, discussion, criticism, réplication when possible, placing to jour and correction. The trust not devrait not depend of has image of infaillibilité. She itself builds also by the clarté of acertainties, the statement of conflicts, the explication of methods and the capacity to recognise has erreur.

It is necessary to distinguish has result of research, has synthèse institutional, has recommandation political, has communiqué and has article of press that rapporte the study. The level of evidence depends of the question and of the protocol. HAS corrélation can guider has hypothesis without establish has cause; has study expérimentale can isoler has mechanism without garantir its scope in all the environments.

Education scientifique and the education to the media can present the controverse legitimate without fabriquer has faux équilibre between has knowledge robuste and has claim no étayée. The transparency on the access, the versions and the limits is has condition of the trust. [S02] [S10] [S17] [S19]

Institutions cultural and bibliothèques

The bibliothèques, musées, archives, centres cultural and media audiences make of knowledge consultables, contextualisent of works and support of communities of learning. Their role dépasse the conservation: ils organise of métadonnées, of mediations, of rights of access and of espaces of rencontre. The selection of collections, the horaires, the tarifs, the localisation and the interfaces have of effects distributifs.

HAS indicator of fréquentation is not sufficient to mesurer the access cultural. It must demander that vient, that not vient not, which practices are possible, which langues and which handicaps are taken in compte, and how the audiences can challenge has ranking or has interpretation. The institutions can favoriser the pluralism without put toutes the sources on has pied of equality factuelle. [S05] [S06] [S35]

Pluralism, disagreement and freedom of expression

The pluralism protects the possibility of seek, discuter, create, enseigner, challenge and changer of avis. It not commande not of traiter each document de travail as exacte or of laisser without reply has menace, has fraude or has atteinte to the rights. HAS institution must distinguish disagreement, erreur, propos offensant, harassment, menace and incitement, according to the norms applicables and has procedure équitable.

The limits must be légales, necessary, proportionnées, motivées and révisables. The CEDH, the Council of Europe and the OHCHR constituent of entry points for the framework of rights, but no page institutional not tranche has cases particulier without analysis of the context. In the education, the rules must protect the discussion and the people, with of voies of signalement that not serve not to sanctionner has opinion simplement minoritaire. [S07] [S08] [S09]

Théories competing and against-arguments

HAS first reading puts the accent on the capacities and the differences individuelles: she rappelle that the learning exigent of prérequis and that toutes the interventions not produisent not the same effect. Its faiblesse is of ader-estimer the contextes, the resources and the criteria of selection.

HAS second reading insiste on the institutions and the capital cultural: she shows that categories scolaires and the norms of réussite distribute of avantages. Its faiblesse would be of traiter the people as of simples products of their milieu and of nier the action, the learning and the variations intra-groups.

HAS third reading puts in before the culture, the language and the conflict of significations: she rend visibles the traduction, the representation and the contestation. Its faiblesse would be the relativisme if she refusait any assessment of evidence or of rights.

HAS fourth reading itself concentre on the incentives, the platforms and the markets: she analysis the infrastructures and the visibility. Its faiblesse would be the technologisme if she attribuait to the algorithme of effects without examine the uses, the institutions and the alternatives. HAS dossier robuste compares these théories and seeks of results that pourraient the affaiblir.

Evidence and causal inference

HAS observation useful responds to cinq questions: which phénomène; for which population; according to which measure; with which comparateur; on which period? For parler of cause, it must in more has stratégie that traite the facteurs concurrents, the temporalité, the biais of selection and the mechanisms plausibles. No label — intelligence, culture, mérite, fracture digital — not remplace this work.

HAS essay randomisé can better isoler has intervention in some conditions, but it can be court, sélectif or difficile to généraliser. HAS cohorte suit of trajectories, but remains exposée to of confusions. HAS investigation transversale describes has situation to has instant. HAS study qualitative can expliquer the significations and the mechanisms vécus without estimer has prévalence. The triangulation combines these forces without do disparaître their limits.

The results must be exprimés with has uncertainty proportionate. Avoid « prouve that » when the data montrent has association; avoid « no effect » lorsqu’une study manque of puissance or measure mal the issue. The synthèses of the EEF, the reports OCDE and the work academic must be lus with their methods and no as of slogans. [S10] [S11] [S18]

Methods of research and of évaluation

HAS protocol of dossier can follow this sequence: define the question; establish has model causal provisoire; select the sources; code the populations, interventions, measures and limits; seek has source contradictoire; verify the métadonnées; distinguish data primary and commentaires; soumettre to has review independent; publish the corrections and the date of reassessment.

The methods quantitatives must specify unit of analysis, sample, attrition, pondération, measure, model, intervalles of uncertainty and analyses of sensibilité when disponibles. The methods qualitatives must specify recrutement, position of the researcher, procedure of coding, saturation or logique of arrêt and extraits necessary — without reproduce of data personnelles inutiles. The analyses documentary must distinguish has text normatif, has report of évaluation, has decision, has reporting and has tribune.

HAS result of press is has piste; the source primary is sought when the enjeu is important. HAS title of press not must not be used as evidence of has chiffre or of has causality absente of the document original. The links payants or inaccessibles are signalés and has alternative ouverte is sought.

Safeguards ethical

The people not are not of cases illustratifs interchangeables. Reduce the risks means minimiser the data, anonymiser when necessary, obtain has consentement approprié, avoid the ré-identification, protect the people vulnérables and not not publish of details that faciliteraient the targeting. The analyses of groups must avoid of naturaliser has identity or of attribute has trait psychological to has population.

The auteurs must déclarer conflicts of interests, financement, limits of access and role of partenaires. The participants disposent, when the method the allows, of has information claire on the usage of data and of has mechanism of withdrawal. Any collecte that dépasse the périmètre must be soumise to has assessment ethics compétente. The dossier not autorise no practice of surveillance, of profilage or of diagnosis to partir of traces public.

The freedom of research not suspend not the dignité, the protection of data, the right of reply nor the obligations professionnelles. The framework cadre éditorial serves here of context of project internal; it not is not has justification for contourner these safeguards.

Case-study method

HAS cases is retenu for has question precise, not parce that il is spectaculaire. The sheet minimale comprend: context and period; actors institutional pertinents; question testable; sources primary and secondaires; population or corpus; mechanism hypothetical; exposure; measure of the issue; alternatives; risks; status of rights; decision editorial. The exemples of this dossier are hypothetical and not describe not of people or of événements real.

HAS study of cases must preserve the distinction between this that is documenté, rapporté by has tiers, allégué, interprété and unknown. The demandes of commentaire are adressées to the people or organisations concernées according to has procedure traçable, with has delay raisonnable. If has allégation not can be corroborée by has source accessible and pertinente, she is rejetée, suspendue or reformulée as question no résolue.

The dossier not retient not has cases fondé on has rumeur unique, has source inaccessible no corroborée, has inference psychological or has generalisation identity-based. HAS withdrawal temporary is possible when the verification is contestée or that a risk seriously appears.

Matrix of coding comparative

The matrix ci-dessous is has instrument of comparison and no has score of quality of people, of cultures or of établissements. She serves to make visibles the differences of question and of evidence. The cellules must be renseignées with the document exact, not with has impression of reading.

Research hypotheses

H1 — The performance to has assessment of reasoning varie with the familiarité linguistique and the format; the effet not must not be interprété as has difference globale of capacity without test of invariance and analyses of context.

H2 — HAS teaching explicite of stratégies of verification améliore more the évaluation of sources when the apprenants disposent of has temps of practice and of rétroaction; this hypothesis must be testée by has comparateur défini and has measure of transfert.

H3 — The criteria of selection institutional prédisent better some results lorsqu’ils are combinés to the resources antérieures and au context, rather that lorsqu’ils are presented as measure isolée of the mérite.

H4 — The diversity of corpus enseignés is associée to has sentiment of representation and to has engagement more large only if the élèves disposent also of knowledge and of methods for compares the perspectives; has simple addition of texts not establishes not cet effect.

H5 — The platforms éducatives that make their recommandations and voies of appeal more transparentes modifient the understanding of choice and the capacity to challenge; the effet must be séparé of the access to the équipement and of the quality of the accompagnement.

H6 — The trust in has information scientifique is better soutenue by the explication of methods and of acertainties that by has présentation of authority only; this hypothesis must mesurer understanding, trust calibrée and disposition to réviser.

Press and institutional corpus

The corpus is volontairement mixte: resources normative and statistics of organisations internationales; cadres of political public; recherches and évaluations; pages of identification of press francophone and anglophone. The sources institutionnelles définissent has right, has political or has indicator; they not are enough not to prouver the efficacité of has intervention. The sources academic détaillent has method; they can have has scope limitée. The press documents of événements and of debates; she must renvoyer to the documents primary.

The corpus francophone comprend of entry points towards The Monde, The Figaro, Libération and France 24; the corpus anglophone comprend BBC, The Guardian, Reuters, Financial Times, The New York Times, AP, POLITICO Europe and Deutsche Welle. These links of rubriques are of pistes of identification, not of articles cités as evidence. Voir the bibliography commentée and verify the article precise before any publication. [S21] [S22] [S23] [S24] [S25] [S26] [S27] [S28] [S29] [S30] [S31] [S32]

How to use this corpus and lire the sources

Distinguish has study of the chronique or of the commentaire that the résume. In the study, relever the population, the sample, the recrutement, the measure, the comparateur, the period, the data manquantes, the model, the uncertainty and the limits. In has report, repérer the mandat, the method, the indicators and the decision editorial. In the press, identifier this that is observé directement, this that is attribué to has source and this that relève of the analyse.

Separate corrélation and causality. Seek has réplication, has méta-analysis or has against-evidence. Not not essentialiser the groups: replace « this group is… » by has description of the context, of the distribution observée and of its limits. Déclarer the paywalls, the résumés seuls, the traductions, the pages supprimées and the links no verified. Preserve the uncertainty in the title, the résumé and the légendes.

HAS reading responsible keeps has audit trail: URL, copie légalement conservée if autorisée, access date, version, extrait minimal, decision of inclusion and reason of has modification. The sources not are not copiées; they are liées and annotées brièvement.

Safeguards editorial, right of reply and transparency

Before publication, the équipe applique has grille of questions testable, vérifie the links, documents the provenance and seeks has against-evidence. The people or institutions directement mises in cause by has does verifiable reçoivent, when c’est possible and proportionate, has asks of commentaire décrivant the point precise and the delay of reply. HAS absence of reply is signalée without be interprétée as has aveu.

The paquet must be accompagné of has log of corrections, of has registre of rights and of sources, of has audit trail, of has protocol of withdrawal temporary, of has review independent, of has political of conflicts of interests and of has date fixe of reassessment. HAS correction substantielle indicates this that changes, pourquoi, when and with which source. HAS page contestée can be suspendue in cases of risk seriously, of source compromise or of uncertainty devenue incompatible with the level of claim.

External links of the present paquet nécessitent has verification préalable. Tant that this étape not is not made, the status approprié is « document of work ». The dossier not revendique no publication, no placing in ligne and no result original.

FAQ

The title affirme-t-it has hierarchy between the people? No. It means trois domains of investigation and interdit of inférer has value humaine to partir of has capacity, of has degree, of has language or of has belonging.

HAS bonne note measure-t-she the intelligence? She measure has performance in has assessment data. L’interprétation depends of the builds, of the format, of the context and of the comparabilité.

The culture explique-t-she the trajectories scolaires? She can contribuer to the practices, resources and attentes, but she is neither has essence nor has explanation suffisante. The institutions and the conditions matérielles comptent.

Education is-she always émancipatrice? No. She can expand the autonomy and the pluralism; she can also reproduce of inégalités, restreindre the curriculums or privilégier some knowledge. L’affirmation exige of evidence in has context.

HAS study of press is enough-she? No. She can report has event or has debate. For has causality or has chiffre, it must retrouver the source primary and in lire the method.

That do of has source inaccessible? The report, seek has version ouverte or has source independent, and not not the use only for has accusation or has conclusion forte.

This dossier produces-it of results empirical? No. It proposes has synthèse methodological, of hypotheses and has corpus of entry points. It not remplace not has study enregistrée and évaluée.

Is about-it of has opinion legal? No. The repères of rights must be verified in the texts applicables and, if necessary, auprès of has professionnel qualifié.

Conclusion

Study the intelligence, the culture and the education asks of maintain several distinctions to the fois. HAS capacity not is not has knowledge; has knowledge not is not has expertise; has expertise not is not has judgment infaillible. HAS degree not is not has value humaine. HAS culture is has set vivant of transmissions and of contestations, not has essence. HAS education can develop the autonomy all in organisant of exclusions that il must make visibles and mesurer.

The neutralité sought here not is not the absence of criteria. She consists to annoncer the concepts, the methods, the sources, the rights and the limits, then to laisser the conclusions follow the evidence. The pluralism not exige not of renoncer to the truth; it exige of procedures that allow of challenge has claim without reduce has person to its identity nor has institution to has narrative unique.

The dossier is therefore prêt as basis of work structurée, no as investigation completed. Its prochaine value dépendra of the verification of links, of the selection of articles precise, of the review independent and of the conservation of acertainties.

Prochaines steps of research

1. Obtain or rattacher the basis of knowledge of the site and the pages of method autorisées; enregistrer their versions, dates and rights, without use of documents personnels.

2. Verify each URL of the corpus, replace the pages of rubrique by of articles or reports precise when the argument the exige, and marquer the paywalls and versions traduites.

3. Build has protocol pré-enregistré for has or two hypotheses, with criteria of inclusion, measures, comparateur, analysis and plan of publication of results nuls.

4. Soumettre the grille of coding to has double review and test the concordance between codeurs on has petit sample of sources.

5. Ajouter has registre of rights, has log of corrections, has political of conflicts, has protocol of right of reply and has date of reassessment fixe.

6. Not publish has cases concret that if the facts, the pertinence, the risk and the possibility of reply satisfont the grille; sinon keep has sheet of exclusion motivée.

Bibliography and sources

The bibliography commentée jointe constitue the registre source of the dossier. She sépare the sources official, normative, comparative, of research, of évaluation and of press. Toutes the entrées portent has status of verification adapté to the absence of access web in the environment of production. The annotations remain courtes and not copient not the articles.

The references internes [S01] to [S36] refer to this bibliography and to the version HTML of the dossier. The pages of press are indiquées as points of identification, without title, auteur or date of article inventés. The link exact, the status of access and the right of réutilisation devront be verified before publication.

Sources liées

The references [S01] to [S36] refer au fichier of bibliography commentée. External links are to check before publication.